根据上下文判断某些词汇和短语的意义

　　在阅读理解测试中必然要考查对词或词组的意思的理解。这也是测试考生阅读能力的一种方法。在完整的语篇中，单词和词组的意义总是受特定的情景、上下文所限制的，因此可以根据上下文，并利用所掌握的句法、构词法和词汇等知识确定它们的意义。掌握这一基本技能不仅能帮助读者从词或词组的多种义项中选择符合上下文的解释，而且往往还能推测某些生词的大致意思。常见的这类题型有：

　　1. The word ... in line ... refers to ______.

　　2. The expression ... is closest in meaning to

　　3. In line.., the word ... most probably means ________

　　4. In line.., the word ... could best be replaced by _________

　　5. By ... the author means _________

　　6. The word ..., as used by the author, most nearly means ________

　　7. In this passage, the word ... means

　　8. ... in the context of the passage refers to _________

　　9. ..., as used in the passage, can best be defined as _________

　　例1

　　Perhaps the most merciless robber of sleep, researchers say, is the complexity of the day. Whenever pressures from work, family, friends and community mount, many people consider sleep the least expensive item on his program. In our society, youre considered dynamic if you say you only need 5.5 hours sleep. If youve got to get 8.5 hours, people think you lack drive and ambition.

　　To determine the consequences of sleep deficit, researchers have put subjects through a set of psychological and performance tests requiring them, for instance, to add columns of numbers or recall a passage read to them only minutes earlier. Weve found that if youre in sleep deficit, performance suffers, says Dr. David. Short-term memory is weakened, as are abilities to make decisions and to concentrate.

　　1. The word subjects in line 6 refers to ________.

　　A. the performance tests used in the study of sleep deficit

　　B. special branches of knowledge that are being studied

　　C. people whose behavior or reactions are being studied

　　D. the psychological consequences of sleep deficit

　　本题考了一个熟悉的词subject。它是一个多义词，可以表示题目、科目等。但这些义项在这里都不合适。要确定它的意思，最关键的是要准确弄清它所在句子前后部分的意思和关系。这句话前一部分说，要确定睡眠不足引起的后果，研究人员让subjects通过一系列的心理和能力的测验，要求them将几栏数字加起来或回忆几分钟前所听到过的文章。所以，这里subjects是人，是正在被研究的对象。选项C是正确答案。

　　例2

　　Labors concern over automation arises from uncertainty about the effects on employment, and fears of major changes in jobs. In the main, labor has taken the view that resistance to technical change is unfruitful. Eventually, the result of automation may well be an increase in employment, since it is expected that vast industries will grow up around manufacturing, maintaining, and repairing automation equipment. The interest of labor lies in bringing about the transition with a minimum of inconvenience and distress to the workers involved. Also, union spokesmen emphasize that the benefit of the increased production and lower costs made possible by automation should be shared by workers in the form of higher wages, more leisure, and improved living standards.

　　To protect the interests of their members in the era of automation, unions have adopted a number of new policies. One of these is the promotion of supplementary unemployment benefit plans. It is emphasized that since the employer involved in such a plan has a direct financial interest in preventing unemployment, he will have a strong drive for planning new installations so as to cause the least possible problems in jobs and job assignments. Some unions are working for dismissal pay agreements, requiring that permanently dismissed workers be paid a sum of money based on length of service. Another approach is the idea of the improvement factor, which calls for wage increases based on increases in productivity. It is possible, however, that labor will rely mainly on reduction in working hours in order to gain a full share in the fruits of automation.

　　1. The idea of the improvement factor implies roughly______.

　　A. wages should be paid on the basis of length of service

　　B. the benefit of the increased production and lower costs should be shared by workers

　　C. supplementary unemployment benefit plans should be promoted

　　D. the transition to automation should be brought about with the minimum of inconvenience and distress to workers

　　本题要求学生根据上下文理解improvement factor的含义。在文章的第二段第七行，提出增值因素是要求随着生产率的提高，工资也要相应地提高;而生产率的提高就是增加生产降低成本。因而选项B是正确答案。选项A，把解雇金协议，即根据服务期长短给长期解雇者一笔钱，与增值因素的内容混淆起来，说明有时文章和题目并不难，但粗心大意会使你答错题。选项C是讲另一种劳工利益?；ご胧┑模词б嫡卟怪鸺苹?而选项D是讲工人们对自动化带来的种种影响所关切的问题 。

　　例3

　　Before the nineteenth century, scientists with an interest in the sea were few and far between. Certainly Newton considered some theoretical aspects of it in his writings, but he was reluctant to go to sea to further his work.

　　For most people the sea was remote, and with the exception of early intercontinental travelers or others who earned a living from the sea, there was little reason to ask many questions about it, let alone to ask what lay beneath the surface. The first time that the question What is at the bottom of the oceans? had to be answered with any commercial consequence was when the laying of a telegraph cable from Europe to America was proposed. The engineers had to know the depth profile of the route to estimate the length of cable that had to be manufactured.

　　It was to Maury of the US Navy that the Atlantic Telegraph Company turned, in 1853, for information on this matter. In the 1840s, Maury had been responsible for encouraging voyages during which soundings were taken to investigate the depths of the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Later, some of his findings aroused much popular interest in his book The Physical Geography of the Sea.

　　The cable was laid, but not until 1866 was the connection made permanent and reliable. At the early attempts, the cable failed and when it was taken out for repairs it was found to be covered in living growths, a fact which defied contemporary scientific opinion that there was no life in the deeper parts of the sea.

　　1.Defied in the last sentence probably means ________.

　　A. doubted B. 9ave proof to

　　C. challenged D. agreed to

　　本题考查的是根据上下文进行词义猜测的能力。defied是defy的过去式，根据最后一句可以推测它的词义，但必须完全读懂defied前后部分的意思：前一部分是说从海底捞出的电缆上覆盖着各种各样的生物，后一部分是当时的科学观点认为海底深处是没有生命的。由此可见，前一部分的事实是批驳后一部分的观点。所以，答案是选项C，challenged。这个词的原意是向挑战，因而有对持异议、反对的意思，其宾语常常是针对某种意见、观点或权威。

　　例4

　　We find that bright children are rarely held back by mixed-ability teaching.On the contrary， both their knowledge and experience are enriched.We feel that there are many disadvantages in streaming pupils.It does not take into account the fact that children develop at different rates.It can have a bad effect on both the bright and the notSO-bright child.After all，it Can be quite discouraging to be at the bottom of the top grade!

　　1.By held backthe author means________.

　　A. made to remain in the same class

　　B. forced to study in the lower class

　　C. drawn to their studies

　　D. prevented from advancing

　　本题考的是对词组holdback的理解。根据上下文，它的意思是阻挡，阻碍，选项D是答案。当然holdback还可以表示犹豫，如：I have noticed that you do not holdback in our discussion.; 控制，如：The dam was not strong enough to hold back the flood waters.;保留、不公布，如： I think hes holding something back;he knows more than he admits.。对照上下文，选项A、B、C都不能表达hold back的意义。

　　例5

　　In the workplace，men have long had welldefined precedents and role models for achieving Success.It has been otherwise for women.A good many women in the business world are uncertain about the appropriate mixture of masculine and feminine attributes they should convey by their professional clothing.The variety of clothing alternatives to women has also been greater than that available for men.Male administrators tend to judge women more favorably for managerial positions when the women display less feminine groomingshorter hair.moderate use of makeup，and plain tailored clothing.As one male administrator confessed，An attractive woman is definitely going to get a longer interview，but she wont get a job.

　　1.The word precedents in line l probably refers to __________.

　　A. early acts for men to follow as examples

　　B. particular places for men to occupy especially because of their importance

　　C. things that men should agree upon

　　D. mens belief that everything in the world has already been decided

　　本题要求考生推测precedents的意思。这个题目比较难，需要构词法的知识并通过上下文的帮助，才能答对。从第一、二句可以看出，precedents在意义上与role models是并列的。而且，它的前缀pre- 有先，前的意思，实际上它是precede加后缀-ent构成的，意思是先例，惯例。所以只有选项A才是正确答案。

　　根据上下文判断某些词汇和短语的意义

　　在阅读理解测试中必然要考查对词或词组的意思的理解。这也是测试考生阅读能力的一种方法。在完整的语篇中，单词和词组的意义总是受特定的情景、上下文所限制的，因此可以根据上下文，并利用所掌握的句法、构词法和词汇等知识确定它们的意义。掌握这一基本技能不仅能帮助读者从词或词组的多种义项中选择符合上下文的解释，而且往往还能推测某些生词的大致意思。常见的这类题型有：

　　1. The word ... in line ... refers to ______.

　　2. The expression ... is closest in meaning to

　　3. In line.., the word ... most probably means ________

　　4. In line.., the word ... could best be replaced by _________

　　5. By ... the author means _________

　　6. The word ..., as used by the author, most nearly means ________

　　7. In this passage, the word ... means

　　8. ... in the context of the passage refers to _________

　　9. ..., as used in the passage, can best be defined as _________

　　例1

　　Perhaps the most merciless robber of sleep, researchers say, is the complexity of the day. Whenever pressures from work, family, friends and community mount, many people consider sleep the least expensive item on his program. In our society, youre considered dynamic if you say you only need 5.5 hours sleep. If youve got to get 8.5 hours, people think you lack drive and ambition.

　　To determine the consequences of sleep deficit, researchers have put subjects through a set of psychological and performance tests requiring them, for instance, to add columns of numbers or recall a passage read to them only minutes earlier. Weve found that if youre in sleep deficit, performance suffers, says Dr. David. Short-term memory is weakened, as are abilities to make decisions and to concentrate.

　　1. The word subjects in line 6 refers to ________.

　　A. the performance tests used in the study of sleep deficit

　　B. special branches of knowledge that are being studied

　　C. people whose behavior or reactions are being studied

　　D. the psychological consequences of sleep deficit

　　本题考了一个熟悉的词subject。它是一个多义词，可以表示题目、科目等。但这些义项在这里都不合适。要确定它的意思，最关键的是要准确弄清它所在句子前后部分的意思和关系。这句话前一部分说，要确定睡眠不足引起的后果，研究人员让subjects通过一系列的心理和能力的测验，要求them将几栏数字加起来或回忆几分钟前所听到过的文章。所以，这里subjects是人，是正在被研究的对象。选项C是正确答案。

　　例2

　　Labors concern over automation arises from uncertainty about the effects on employment, and fears of major changes in jobs. In the main, labor has taken the view that resistance to technical change is unfruitful. Eventually, the result of automation may well be an increase in employment, since it is expected that vast industries will grow up around manufacturing, maintaining, and repairing automation equipment. The interest of labor lies in bringing about the transition with a minimum of inconvenience and distress to the workers involved. Also, union spokesmen emphasize that the benefit of the increased production and lower costs made possible by automation should be shared by workers in the form of higher wages, more leisure, and improved living standards.

　　To protect the interests of their members in the era of automation, unions have adopted a number of new policies. One of these is the promotion of supplementary unemployment benefit plans. It is emphasized that since the employer involved in such a plan has a direct financial interest in preventing unemployment, he will have a strong drive for planning new installations so as to cause the least possible problems in jobs and job assignments. Some unions are working for dismissal pay agreements, requiring that permanently dismissed workers be paid a sum of money based on length of service. Another approach is the idea of the improvement factor, which calls for wage increases based on increases in productivity. It is possible, however, that labor will rely mainly on reduction in working hours in order to gain a full share in the fruits of automation.

　　1. The idea of the improvement factor implies roughly______.

　　A. wages should be paid on the basis of length of service

　　B. the benefit of the increased production and lower costs should be shared by workers

　　C. supplementary unemployment benefit plans should be promoted

　　D. the transition to automation should be brought about with the minimum of inconvenience and distress to workers

　　本题要求学生根据上下文理解improvement factor的含义。在文章的第二段第七行，提出增值因素是要求随着生产率的提高，工资也要相应地提高;而生产率的提高就是增加生产降低成本。因而选项B是正确答案。选项A，把解雇金协议，即根据服务期长短给长期解雇者一笔钱，与增值因素的内容混淆起来，说明有时文章和题目并不难，但粗心大意会使你答错题。选项C是讲另一种劳工利益?；ご胧┑模词б嫡卟怪鸺苹?而选项D是讲工人们对自动化带来的种种影响所关切的问题 。

　　例3

　　Before the nineteenth century, scientists with an interest in the sea were few and far between. Certainly Newton considered some theoretical aspects of it in his writings, but he was reluctant to go to sea to further his work.

　　For most people the sea was remote, and with the exception of early intercontinental travelers or others who earned a living from the sea, there was little reason to ask many questions about it, let alone to ask what lay beneath the surface. The first time that the question What is at the bottom of the oceans? had to be answered with any commercial consequence was when the laying of a telegraph cable from Europe to America was proposed. The engineers had to know the depth profile of the route to estimate the length of cable that had to be manufactured.

　　It was to Maury of the US Navy that the Atlantic Telegraph Company turned, in 1853, for information on this matter. In the 1840s, Maury had been responsible for encouraging voyages during which soundings were taken to investigate the depths of the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Later, some of his findings aroused much popular interest in his book The Physical Geography of the Sea.

　　The cable was laid, but not until 1866 was the connection made permanent and reliable. At the early attempts, the cable failed and when it was taken out for repairs it was found to be covered in living growths, a fact which defied contemporary scientific opinion that there was no life in the deeper parts of the sea.

　　1.Defied in the last sentence probably means ________.

　　A. doubted B. 9ave proof to

　　C. challenged D. agreed to

　　本题考查的是根据上下文进行词义猜测的能力。defied是defy的过去式，根据最后一句可以推测它的词义，但必须完全读懂defied前后部分的意思：前一部分是说从海底捞出的电缆上覆盖着各种各样的生物，后一部分是当时的科学观点认为海底深处是没有生命的。由此可见，前一部分的事实是批驳后一部分的观点。所以，答案是选项C，challenged。这个词的原意是向挑战，因而有对持异议、反对的意思，其宾语常常是针对某种意见、观点或权威。

　　例4

　　We find that bright children are rarely held back by mixed-ability teaching.On the contrary， both their knowledge and experience are enriched.We feel that there are many disadvantages in streaming pupils.It does not take into account the fact that children develop at different rates.It can have a bad effect on both the bright and the notSO-bright child.After all，it Can be quite discouraging to be at the bottom of the top grade!

　　1.By held backthe author means________.

　　A. made to remain in the same class

　　B. forced to study in the lower class

　　C. drawn to their studies

　　D. prevented from advancing

　　本题考的是对词组holdback的理解。根据上下文，它的意思是阻挡，阻碍，选项D是答案。当然holdback还可以表示犹豫，如：I have noticed that you do not holdback in our discussion.; 控制，如：The dam was not strong enough to hold back the flood waters.;保留、不公布，如： I think hes holding something back;he knows more than he admits.。对照上下文，选项A、B、C都不能表达hold back的意义。

　　例5

　　In the workplace，men have long had welldefined precedents and role models for achieving Success.It has been otherwise for women.A good many women in the business world are uncertain about the appropriate mixture of masculine and feminine attributes they should convey by their professional clothing.The variety of clothing alternatives to women has also been greater than that available for men.Male administrators tend to judge women more favorably for managerial positions when the women display less feminine groomingshorter hair.moderate use of makeup，and plain tailored clothing.As one male administrator confessed，An attractive woman is definitely going to get a longer interview，but she wont get a job.

　　1.The word precedents in line l probably refers to __________.

　　A. early acts for men to follow as examples

　　B. particular places for men to occupy especially because of their importance

　　C. things that men should agree upon

　　D. mens belief that everything in the world has already been decided

　　本题要求考生推测precedents的意思。这个题目比较难，需要构词法的知识并通过上下文的帮助，才能答对。从第一、二句可以看出，precedents在意义上与role models是并列的。而且，它的前缀pre- 有先，前的意思，实际上它是precede加后缀-ent构成的，意思是先例，惯例。所以只有选项A才是正确答案。